Economic Policies of Pre-colonial Period in Sri Lanka: Agriculture

Introduction

The irrigation-fed agriculture has been the main source of income and economic activity during pre-colonial period of Sri Lanka. Rice or paddy cultivation was the major agricultural activity and It was considered as a way of life.   According to Mahavansa, the irreplaceable written source of Sri Lankan history, the story of man in Sri Lanka begins with the arrival of Vijaya in 550 BC, who came from Sinhapura Kingdom in Southern India. From 550 BC to 1504 AD, is considered as the pre-colonial period of Sri Lanka. From 1505 AD to 1948 AD is the colonial period, where Sri Lanka was ruled by Portuguese, Dutch and British .During the ancient period of Sri Lanka, when the country was ruled by Sri Lankan kings, the economy of the country mainly dependant on production of food; agriculture. This concept paper will discuss the agricultural sector; mainly paddy (rice) cultivation and chena cultivation, of Sri Lanka during the pre-colonial period.

Pre-Anuradhapura Period (Before 437 BC)

Based on archaeological evidence, history of this island can trace back to 125 000 years before present. There are indications of fundamental knowledge of agriculture, probably during Balangoda culture. Evidently the balangoda man, a cave inhabitant has known how to produce fire too.

When aryans came from India first, they settled along the number of river banks including malvathu oya, kumbukkan river,walawe river mainly considering the farming. Rice cultivation was reformed according to the traditional knowledge and farming systems practiced in India by aryans. These migrants introduced the use of iron equipment to the island like iron axe, iron plough. It’s said that they dependant on north-east monsoon, to cultivate a single annual yield of rice. Since the rain was seasonal and not reliable, they had used two general solutions to supply water for cultivation; irrigation by means of channels cut from rivers and construction of tanks.

Rice cultivation got considerable position within the society during the period of king Paduwasudeva in between 512-474 BC. “Panda wewa” built be King Panduwasdev is said to be the man kind’s first reservoir ever, even though it’s not recognized by mahavansa.

Anuradhapura Period (437 BC to 1059 AD)

According the history, Anuradhapura era begins with King Pandukhabaya and he has constructed Abhaya wewa and has given a large contribution to rice cultivation. Large scale irrigation work has started during early 2^nd century to 429 AD, contributing majorly to agriculture. During this period, Sri Lanka has not been disturbed or attacked by South Indian Tamilians. During 7^th century, Kala wewa by King Dathusena, Minneri wewa by King Mahasen, Nachchaduwa wewa by King Moggalana (II), Girithale wewa by King Aggabodhi (II) and Minipe dam, Elahara canel, Haththota dam, Malvathuoya dam are great irrigation works which facilitated agriculture.

Mahawanshaya and Sihalawaththupakaranaya exposed that Al wee (Hal wee) and Mada wee were mostly cultivated in both upland and low land rice fields. It is reported that three seasons namely Pita dada hasa (Maha season), Made hasa (Mid-season) and Akala hasa (Yala season) during the governance period of king Sirimegavanna (303-331 AD) and rice was cultivated even in the mid-season

According to Buddhagosa Thero (5^th Century) there had been rules and regulations to comply with, in paddy cultivation in order to avoid misuse of irrigation. To regulate the cultivation, an officer called “wel cami” has been assigned. If a farmer didn’t adhere to rules and regulation he was charged a fine. Apart from that farmers haven’t had the right to decide the type of rice or grain to cultivate. The government has assigned those to farmers to cultivate in their fields. During 9^th and 10^th century, its seemed that the paddy cultivation was planned well and executed according to a system. It is said that the aim was to produce only a sufficient amount of food for the people in the country.

Farmers had to pay a part of their cultivation as tax and may be a part as a donation to a Buddhist temple or had to be paid to land owners or government officers.

Polonnaruwa Period (1060 AD to 1235 AD)

During Polonnaruwa period, the agriculture was mainly contributed by 3 kings; King Vijayabahu (I), King Parakramabahu (I) and King Nissanka Malla. Massive efforts had been taken by these kings to restore, renovate and expand the irrigation works. The golden era of traditional rice cultivation is considered to be the period of the great king Parakramabahu. During his period Sri Lanka was well recognized by “Peradiga danyagaraya” (Granary of the East). It is said that we even exported rice to other countries during his period. His “Parakrama Samudra” is an astonishing irrigation work contributed to agriculture.

Land tax was charged in Polonnaruwa period and it should be paid by a contribution of paddy. This was the main income of king.

Agriculture in this era was the prime economic activity of the kingdom even though a rise of trade was visible.

Dambadeniya to Kotte Period (1235 AD to 1504 AD)

As one of the major turning points in Sri Lankan’s history can be considered as the failure of the ancient Sinhalese kingdom of the dry zone.

Due to several attacks to the country and shift of kingdoms, have negatively affected to the agriculture during this period. The malaria disease started to spread over the country in the thirteenth century.  The instability and insecurity of this period, could hardly have been supportive to the irrigation works in the parts of dry zone as well. Since the irrigation was the backbone of the agriculture, it provides evidence to the decline in agricultural sector during this period.

Sinhalese kingdoms of the country, mainly concentrated on rain fed agriculture. Cultivation was rice mainly the agricultural surplus available to the state would seem to have been quite low in comparison with past.

However, with the rise of trade during these centuries, cinnamon, are ca nut, pepper etc were grown in the island later.

Chena Cultivation

Earliest Sri Lanka was an independent, flourishing agricultural economy – the primary food, rice, was cultivated in widespread paddy fields, while vegetables, greens, grains and cereals were cultivated in rain-fed lands called ‘Chenas’.

Chena is considered as the oldest method of cultivation in Sri Lanka, extending as far back as 5000 years in Sri Lankan history. Chena farming was a traditional practice and ancient Sri Lankans ensured that the environment was undamaged in the process. Climate, nature of soil as well as other environmental and topological factors of the area were considered when selecting a method in chena cultivation. Chena cultivation was mainly practiced by men; however, women and children also extended their assistance in numerous ways such as protecting crops from looting birds and animals.

Ancient farmers of Sri Lanka strongly believed in religious and spiritual rituals and powers. There had been practices called “kem” used in cultivations and impurities called “kili” were to avoid during the cultivation.

There were mainly four types of Chena: Navadali Hena, Ath Danduwa Hena, Mukulan Hena and Hen Kanaththa

Navadali Hena is chena land formed by clearing an intact forest area, setting it on fire and cultivating it instantly after.

The forest starts to re-grow in the abandoned Navadali Hena land after a few months and when the trees have gotten the average length of a person’s arm, the semi-wilderness is cleared and set on fire for cultivation. This type of chena land is called ‘Ath Danduwa Hena’, Ath Danduwa gives the meaning of ‘arm length’.

A wilderness which consists of small and medium-sized trees is called a ‘Mukalana’.When the medium and small sized trees of a Mukalana forest is cleared, and a new chena cultivation is started, it is called Mukulana Hena.

When a land becomes infertile as a result of repeated tilling, it is called Hen Kanaththa and it is abandoned by the farmers.

After setting the chena on fire, it is tilled well. And then seeds from previous harvest are spilled on the tilled soil. Farmers had to take measures to protect the chena from animals. “Pela” a temporary hut was built for this purpose. “pamabya” and “takaya” were also commonly used.